Hybrid Electric Engine
Hybrid electric vehicle
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A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a hybrid vehicle that combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional vehicle, or better performance. A hybrid electric vehicle is also a form of electric vehicle; a variety of types of HEV exist, and the degree to which they function as EVs varies as well. The most common form of HEV is the hybrid electric car, an automobile driven by a gasoline internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric motors powered by batteries. Hybrid electric trucks (pickup and tractor) also exist.
Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into battery-replenishing electric energy, rather than wasting it as heat energy as vehicles equipped with conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or directly feed power to the electric motors that drive the vehicle. Many HEVs reduce idle emissions by shutting down the ICE at idle and restarting it when needed; this is known as a start-stop system. A hybrid-electric produces less emissions from its ICE than a comparably-sized gasoline car, as an HEV's gasoline engine is usually smaller than a pure fossil-fuel vehicle, and if not used to directly drive the car, can be geared to run at maximum efficiency, further improving fuel economy.
The hybrid-electric vehicle would not become widely available until the release of the Toyota Prius in Japan in 1997, followed by the Honda Insight in 1999. While initially perceived as unnecessary due to the low cost of gasoline, worldwide increases in the price of petroleum caused many automakers to release hybrids in the late 2000s; they are now perceived as a core segment of the automotive market of the future.[2][3] Worldwide sales of hybrid vehicles produced by Toyota reached 1.7 million vehicles in January 2009.[1] The second-generation Honda Insight was the top-selling vehicle in Japan in April 2009, marking the first occasion that an HEV has received the distinction.[4] American automakers have made development of hybrid cars a top priority.[5]
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History
In 1901, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche designed the Mixte, a 4WD series-hybrid version of "System Lohner-Porsche" electric carriage previously appeared in 1900 Paris Salon. Mixte included a pair of generators driven by 2.5-hp Daimler IC engines to extend operating range.[6][7] The Mixte broke several Austrian speed records, and also won the Exelberg Rally in 1901 with Porsche himself driving. The Mixte used a gasoline engine powering a generator, which in turn powered electric hub motors, with a small battery pack for reliability. It had a range of 50 km, a top speed of 50 km/h and a power of 5.22 kW during 20 minutes.
In 1905, H. Piper filed a US patent application for a hybrid vehicle. [8]
The 1915 Dual Power, made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below 15 mph (25 km/h) the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its 35 mph (55 km/h) top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918.[9]
The first gasoline-electric hybrid car was released by the Woods Motor Vehicle Company of Chicago in 1917. The hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service.
In 1931 Erich Gaichen invented and drove from Altenburg to Berlin a 1/2 horsepower electric car containing features later incorporated into hybrid cars. Its maximum speed was 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), but it was licensed by the Motor Transport Office, taxed by the German Revenue Department and patented by the German Reichs-Patent Amt. The car battery was re-charged by the motor when the car went downhill. Additional power to charge the battery was provided by a cylinder of compressed air which was re-charged by small air pumps activated by vibrations of the chassis and the brakes and by igniting oxyhydrogen gas. An account of the car and his characterization as a "crank inventor" can be found in Arthur Koestler's autobiography, Arrow in the Blue, pages 269-271, which summarize a contemporaneous newspaper account written by Koestler. No production beyond the prototype was reported.
Predecessors of current technology
A more recent working prototype of the HEV was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt, the first transistor-based electric car). Wouk's work with HEVs in the 1960s and 1970s earned him the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid".[10] Wouk installed a prototype hybrid drivetrain (with a 16 kW electric motor) into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was stopped by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1976 while Eric Stork, the head of the EPA at the time, was accused of a prejudicial coverup.[11]
The regenerative braking system, the core design concept of most production HEVs, was developed by electrical engineer David Arthurs around 1978 using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Arthurs'. The vehicle exhibited 75 miles per US gallon (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) fuel efficiency and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 miles per US gallon (2.8 L/100 km; 101 mpg-imp).
In 1989, Audi produced its first iteration of the Audi Duo (or Audi 100 Avant duo) experimental vehicle, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. This car had a 12.6 bhp Siemens electric motor which drove the rear wheels. A trunk-mounted nickel-cadmium battery supplied energy to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front wheels were powered by a 2.3-litre five-cylinder engine with an output of 136 bhp (101 kW). The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.
Two years later, Audi, unveiled the second duo generation - likewise based on the Audi 100 Avant quattro. Once again this featured an electric motor, a 28.6 bhp (21.3 kW) three-phase machine, driving the rear wheels. This time, however, the rear wheels were additionally powered via the Torsen differential from the main engine compartment, which housed a 2.0-litre four-cylinder engine.
The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) program on 29 September 1993 that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle.[12] The NRC cited automakers’ moves to produce HEVs as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the “Big Three” would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3.[13] The program was replaced by the hydrogen-focused FreedomCAR initiative by the George W. Bush administration in 2001,[14] an initiative to fund research too risky for the private sector to engage in, with the long-term goal of developing effectively carbon emission- and petroleum-free vehicles.
Production HEVs
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Automotive hybrid technology became successful in the 1990s when the Honda Insight and Toyota Prius became available. These vehicles have a mechanical linkage from the ICE to the driven wheels, so that some power is transferred from the engine to the wheels without conversion to and from electric energy.[citation needed]
An R.L. Polk survey of 2003 model year cars showed that hybrid electric car registrations in the United States rose to 43,435 cars, a 25.8% increase from 2002 numbers.[citation needed] California had the most HEVs registered: 11,425.
The Prius has been in high demand since 2004. Newer designs have more conventional appearance and are less expensive, often appearing and performing identically to their non-hybrid counterparts while delivering 40% better fuel efficiency. The Honda Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, for instance, but delivers better mileage. The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight, while not matching the demand of the Prius, stopped being produced after 2006 and has a devoted base of owners. In 2004, Honda also released a hybrid version of the Accord but discontinued it in 2007 citing disappointing sales.[15]
Honda, which offers Insight, Civic and Accord models, sold 26,773 HEVs in the first 11 months of 2004. Toyota had sold a cumulative 306,862 HEVs between 1997 and November 2004, and Honda had sold a total of 81,867 HEVs between 1999 and November 2004.[16]
Audi was the first European car manufacturer to put in 1997 a hybrid vehicle into series production, the third generation Audi duo, then based on the A4 Avant.[17]
2005 saw the first hybrid electric sport utility vehicle (SUV) released, the Ford Escape Hybrid. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents[citation needed] from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built.[citation needed] In exchange for the hybrid licenses, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota.[citation needed] Toyota announced calendar year 2005 hybrid electric versions of the Toyota Highlander and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i, which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a differential. Toyota also plans to add hybrid drivetrains to ten new hybrid models by 2012 and expects to sell worldwide one million hybrids per year early in the coming decade.[1][18]
In 2007, Lexus released a hybrid electric version of their GS sport sedan dubbed the GS450h with a power output of 335bhp [19]. The 2007 Camry Hybrid became available in Summer 2006 in the United States and Canada. Nissan announced the release of the Altima hybrid (technology supplied by Toyota) in 2007.Hybrid cars see record sales.[20]
Commencing in 2008 General Motors began to market their 2-Mode Hybrid models of their GMT900 based Chevrolet Tahoe and GMC Yukon SUVs. [21]
The Toyota hybrids combined with Lexus reached 1 million hybrids sold in the US by February 2009, and worldwide sales of hybrids by both carmakers reached over 1.7 million vehicles by January 2009. As a top seller in the US market, the Toyota Prius made up more than half of the 1.2 million Prius sold worldwide by early 2009.[1][18]
The Ford Fusion Hybrid officially debuted at the Greater Los Angeles Auto Show in November 2008,[22] and was lanched to the U.S. market in March 2009, together with the second generation Honda Insight and the Mercury Milan Hybrid.[23]
Top national markets for hybrid electric vehicles in 2008[24]
Rank  |
Nation |
Number of registered hybrids |
Percent of global hybrid registrations |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | United States | 279,847 | 62% |
| 2 | Japan | 77,937 | 17% |
| 3 | Canada | 17,911 | 4% |
| 4 | United Kingdom | 14,137 | 3% |
| 5 | Netherlands | 11,080 | 2% |
| Top 5 | 400,912 | 89% | |
| World | 449,626 | 100% |
Top U.S. metropolitan markets for hybrid electric vehicles in 2008[24]
| Rank |
City |
New registered hybrids per 1000 Households |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Portland, OR | 11.141 |
| 2 | San Francisco, CA | 8.016 |
| 3 | Monterey, CA | 6.621 |
| 4 | Santa Barbara, CA | 6.295 |
| 5 | San Diego, CA | 5.947 |
| 6 | Los Angeles, CA | 5.474 |
| 7 | Charlottesville, VA | 4.875 |
| 8 | Seattle, WA | 4.461 |
| 9 | Sacramento, CA | 4.444 |
| 10 | Washington, DC | 4.338 |
| United States metropolitan area average | 1.812 |
Pre-production HEVs
For the 2009 model year, the same technology will be offered in the Cadillac Escalade [25] and their 1/2-ton pickup truck models, the 2009 Chevrolet Silverado[26] and GMC Sierra[27] 2-mode hybrid models. Also in 2009 GM's Saturn division is releasing the first front wheel drive version of the 2-mode technology with the appearance of the 2009 Saturn Vue 2-mode hybrid model.[28]
Hyundai Motor Company plans to start retail sales of its first LPG–electric hybrid vehicle in July 2009. To be sold initially in the South Korean domestic market under the Avante badge, the Elantra LPI Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is the world's first hybrid vehicle to be powered by liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and the first to adopt advanced Lithium Polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.
Comparing operating costs among different types of hybrid vehicles currently available in the marketplace, the Elantra LPI HEV promises to be the cheapest of all to run. The Elantra LPI HEV promises to be as much as 40 percent cheaper to operate than other competitor models in the marketplace[29]
Honda will release the CR-Z in hybrid form in Feb 2010 in Japan.[30]
Plug-in hybrids (PHEVs)
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an electric power source. It shares the characteristics of both traditional hybrid electric vehicles (also called charge-maintaining hybrid electric vehicles [31] or CHEV), having an electric motor and a internal combustion engine, and of all-electric vehicles, also having a plug to connect to the electric grid.
In 2007 the United States Department of Energy recommended plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for mass-production.
Technology
The varieties of hybrid electric designs can be differentiated by the structure of the hybrid vehicle drivetrain, the fuel type, and the mode of operation.
In 2007, several automobile manufacturers announced that future vehicles will use aspects of hybrid electric technology to reduce fuel consumption without the use of the hybrid drivetrain. Regenerative braking can be used to recapture energy and stored to power electrical accessories, such as air conditioning. Shutting down the engine at idle can also be used to reduce fuel consumption and reduce emissions without the addition of a hybrid drivetrain. In both cases, some of the advantages of hybrid electric technology are gained while additional cost and weight may be limited to the addition of larger batteries and starter motors. There is no standard terminology for such vehicles, although they may be termed mild hybrids.
The 2000s saw development of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which can be recharged from the electrical power grid and do not require conventional fuel for short trips. The Renault Kangoo was the first production model of this design, released in France in 2003.
Engines and fuel sources
Fossil fuels
Free-piston engines could be used to generate electricity as efficiently as, and less expensively than, fuel cells [32].
- Gasoline
Gasoline engines are used in most hybrid electric designs, and will likely remain dominant for the foreseeable future. While petroleum-derived gasoline is the primary fuel, it is possible to mix in varying levels of ethanol created from renewable energy sources. Like most modern ICE-powered vehicles, HEVs can typically use up to about 15% bioethanol. Manufacturers may move to flexible fuel engines, which would increase allowable ratios, but no plans are in place at present.
- Diesel
Diesel-electric HEVs use a diesel engine for power generation. Diesels have advantages when delivering constant power for long periods of time, suffering less wear while operating at higher efficiency. The diesel engine's high torque, combined with hybrid technology, may offer substantially improved mileage. Most diesel vehicles can use 100% pure biofuels (biodiesel), so they can use but do not need petroleum at all for fuel (although mix